History of Sports Diplomacy

Introduction

Sports diplomacy is the use of sporting events and figures to advance political, diplomatic, and cultural objectives between nations. The tradition extends from the ancient Greek Olympic Truce (ekecheiria), under which the Greek city-states agreed to military ceasefires during the Olympic Games, through the modern era in which sport has been continuously deployed as political theater. The 1936 Berlin Olympics, the 1968 Mexico City Black Power Salute, the 1971 ping pong diplomacy that precipitated the U.S.-China rapprochement, the 1972 Munich Olympics terror attack, the Cold War-era Olympic boycotts of 1980 and 1984, the South African apartheid sports boycott, the 1995 Rugby World Cup Mandela moment, the 1998 World Cup Iran-United States contest, and various other moments have all shaped the broader international sporting landscape.

The modern sports diplomacy era has been shaped by the commercialization of international sport, the growth of global broadcasting reach, the expansion of authoritarian government investments in international sport (most prominently the Saudi Arabian, Qatari, Chinese, and Russian government sports investments), and the broader political polarization of the modern era. Recent moments — the 2008 Beijing Olympic torch relay protests, the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics that preceded the Russian invasion of Crimea, the 2018 PyeongChang Olympic unified Korea moment, the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics diplomatic boycotts, the 2022 Russian Olympic and various international sports bans following the Russian invasion of Ukraine — have continued to shape the broader sports diplomacy landscape.

This article surveys the full history of sports diplomacy across two and a half millennia, from the ancient Greek Olympic Truce through the modern Saudi sportswashing era. The story includes the legendary individual protests of athletes like Tommie Smith and John Carlos, the cynical political appropriations of sport by various authoritarian regimes, the genuine diplomatic openings produced by table tennis and rugby and basketball at various moments, and the continuing question of how international sport should respond to the political and human-rights situations of its various host countries and participating nations.

Ancient Olympic Truce and the 1936 Berlin Olympics

The ancient Greek Olympic Truce, called ekecheiria (literally "holding of hands"), was the agreement among the Greek city-states to military ceasefires during the ancient Olympic Games. The truce was proclaimed by heralds (spondophoroi) sent throughout the Greek world before each Olympic Games, intended to guarantee safe passage to athletes, judges, and spectators traveling to Olympia. The truce was not absolute, and there are historical instances of violations, but it expressed the principle that the religious obligations of the Olympic festival temporarily superseded the political quarrels of ordinary Greek life.

The modern revival of the Olympic Truce has been periodic. The 1992 United Nations General Assembly adopted an Olympic Truce Resolution that has been renewed before each subsequent Olympic Games. The various Olympic Truces have had relatively limited practical effect on contemporary international conflicts, but the principle has continued to be celebrated as part of the cultural framework of the modern Olympic movement.