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History of Egypt
From antiquity to the modern era — the historical eras, key events, and narrative that shaped Egypt.
Overview
Sphinx and pyramids at Giza (Al Jizah) THE ROOTS OF EGYPTIAN civilization go back more than 6,000 years to the beginning of settled life along the banks of the Nile River. The country has an unusual geographical and cultural unity that has given the Egyptian people a strong sense of identity and a pride in their heritage as descendants of humankind’s earliest civilized community.
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Historical Eras
The major periods of {country}’s history at a glance.
Pharaonic Egypt
3200 BCE – 332 BCE
Unified under the legendary King Menes around 3200 BCE, ancient Egypt flourished for nearly three millennia under successive dynasties of god-kings. The Old Kingdom produced the pyramids of Giza and Saqqara; the New Kingdom saw warrior pharaohs such as Ramesses II and cultural icons including Hatshepsut and Tutankhamun. Egypt's engineers, physicians, and astronomers established foundational achievements of human civilization.
Greek & Roman Egypt
332 BCE – 642
Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BCE, inaugurating the Ptolemaic dynasty, which blended Greek and Egyptian culture and produced landmarks such as the Library of Alexandria. Cleopatra VII, the last Ptolemaic ruler, lost to Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, bringing Egypt under Roman and later Byzantine imperial control. This era ended with the Arab conquest in 642 CE.
Islamic & Arab Rule
642 – 1517
The military commander Amr ibn al-As conquered Egypt in 642, permanently transforming the country through Islamization and Arabization. The Fatimid caliphate founded Cairo in 969 as a new imperial capital and center of Sunni and Shia learning. The Mamluk sultanate, beginning with Baybars I, halted the Mongol advance at Ayn Jalut in 1260 and presided over a sophisticated military and artistic culture until the Ottoman conquest.
Ottoman Period
1517 – 1882
Sultan Selim I absorbed Egypt into the Ottoman Empire in 1517, though Mamluk administrative structures persisted beneath Turkish governors. Muhammad Ali, an Albanian viceroy who seized power in 1805, modernized the army, built infrastructure, and briefly extended Egyptian dominion into Sudan and Syria before European powers curtailed his ambitions. The completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 brought Egypt global strategic importance alongside crippling foreign debt.
British Occupation
1882 – 1952
Britain occupied Egypt in 1882 to protect its financial interests and the Suez Canal, establishing effective colonial control despite nominal Ottoman and later nominal Egyptian sovereignty. A formal protectorate was declared in 1914, and partial independence was granted in 1922 under King Fuad I, though British troops remained and dominated key decisions. Nationalist resentment, amplified by the humiliation of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, fueled the Free Officers Movement.
Modern Republic
1952 – present
The Free Officers' coup of July 1952, led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, ended the monarchy and established the Republic of Egypt. Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956 made him an icon of Arab nationalism, while Egypt fought major conflicts with Israel in 1956, 1967, and 1973. The subsequent decades brought the Camp David Accords, the presidency of Hosni Mubarak, the 2011 Arab Spring revolution, and the current administration of Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.
Timeline Preview
The first 7 key events. View the full chronology on the timeline page.
2700 BCE
The first stone pyramid built
The first stone pyramid built.
2600 BCE
Pyramids of Giza built
Pyramids of Giza built.
1500 BCE
Hatshepsut became pharaoh
Hatshepsut became pharaoh.
1400 BCE
Tutankhamen became pharaoh
Tutankhamen became pharaoh.
1274 BCE
Ramesses II fought in Battle of Kadesh
Ramesses II fought in Battle of Kadesh.
671 BCE
Assyrians attacked Egypt
Assyrians attacked Egypt.
525 BCE
Persian conquest
Persian conquest.